Section 4 Review the Civil War Chapter 13 Answer Key

D ARKNESS AND L IGHT T HE INTERWAR YEARS 1865–1898
ith the finish of the Civil War, the great volunteer regular army enlisted for that struggle was quickly demobilized and the U.Southward. Army became over again a pocket-sized regular organization. During the ensuing menses the Army faced a variety of problems, some old and some new. These included, besides demobilization, occupation duty in the South, a French threat in Mexico, domestic disturbances, Indian troubles, and, within the Army itself, the former bad-mannered relationship between the line and the staff departments. Despite a relative isolation from civilian order during the catamenia 1865–1898, the Army developed professionally, experimented with new equipment of various kinds, and took halting steps toward utilizing the period's new engineering in weapons. In a period of professional person introspection and physical isolation, the Army still contributed to the nation's civil progress. Demobilization, Reorganization, and the French Threat in Mexico       The military might of the Union was put on display tardily in May 1865, when Meade's and Sherman's armies participated in a 1000 review in Washington with Sherman'due south army alone taking half dozen and one-one-half hours to laissez passer the reviewing stand on Pennsylvania Avenue. It was a spectacle well calculated to print on Confederate and foreign leaders alike that but a stiff government could field such a powerful strength. But even as these troops were preparing for their victory march, the State of war Department sent Sheridan to command an aggregate forcefulness of 80,000 men in the territory west of the Mississippi and south of the Arkansas, of which he put 52,000 in Texas. There Sheridan'southward men put musculus backside previ-

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Henry O. Flipper		ous diplomatic protests against the presence of French troops in United mexican states. The French had entered that country several years before ostensibly to collect debts, just since 1864 had maintained their puppet Maximilian on a Mexican throne in the face of opposition from Mexican patriot forces under Benito Juarez. While the American Civil War lasted, the United States had been unable to do more than protest this situation, for even diplomacy if too vigorous might have pushed French republic into an alliance with the South. Now stronger measures seemed necessary. The armed services might in being in May 1865 was ephemeral, for the volunteers wanted to become home and Congress wanted to decrease the size of the Army. Because of the needs of occupation in the Due south and the French threat in Mexico, demobilization was spread over a period of eighteen months instead of the three in which it could have been accomplished. Still, it was rapid. On May 1, 1865, there were 1,034,064 volunteers in the Army, but by the centre of November, over 800,000 of them had been paid, mustered out, and transported to their dwelling states by the Quartermaster Corps. A twelvemonth later at that place were but eleven,043 volunteers left in the service, nigh of whom were U.S. Colored Troops. These were well-nigh all mustered out by late Oct 1867. Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, the General in Principal, wanted to increase the Army, kept pocket-size during the Civil War, to fourscore,000 men, just neither Secretary of State of war Edwin G. Stanton nor Congress would hold. Congress, on July 28, 1866, voted an establishment of 54,302 officers and enlisted men. Actual strength reached virtually 57,000 on September thirty, 1867, a peak until 1898. In 1869 Congress cut the number of infantry regiments to 25 and the authorized force to 45,000. In 1876 the regimental tables of organization were reduced to limit the full authorized force to 27,442, an authorization that remained virtually stationary until the Spanish-American War. A significant effect of the Civil State of war on the new organization of the Ground forces was a provision in the 1866 act for 4 African American infantry regiments, reduced to 2 in 1869, and two African American cavalry regiments, though nigh of their officers would be white. In 1877 Henry O. Flipper of Thomasville, Georgia, became the first African American graduate of West Point and was assigned to one of these regiments, the 10th Cavalry. The infantry regiments were the 24th and 25th Infantries, and the other Cavalry regiment was the 9th Cavalry. During the long campaigns in the West these four regiments gained a sure measure of fame as tough and disciplined units. Demobilization was not then rapid that Napoleon Three was unaware of the strength of U.S. forces. In the bound of 1867 he finally withdrew his troops from United mexican states and left Maximilian to die before a juarista firing squad. While in that location were other factors that assistance explain the French emperor's activity and historians are non agreed on his motives, he could not have ignored the determination to enforce the Monroe Doctrine embodied in Sheridan's show of force, specially since Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield was and so on a special mission in French republic to make this point clear. Reconstruction       The Civil State of war settled once and for all the questions of slavery and of state sovereignty, just after Appomattox the issues of reconstruction
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THE ARMY AND THE FREEDMEN'S BUREAU Congress established the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands in March 1865 to handle problems that had already arisen in Marriage-occupied parts of the Southward and were certain to persist subsequently the Confederate give up—especially that of convincing white southerners that slavery was in fact abol- ished. The Freedmen's Bureau, as it soon became known, was an agency within the Department of War but not a part of the U.Due south. Regular army, although its administrators and field agents were commissioned officers of the volunteers and the regulars. Across the rural South, Freedmen'southward Bureau agents spent most of their working hours adjudicating differences between landless blackness farmers and white landowners. The bureau as well ran schools funded largely by private benevolent organizations and helped veterans of the U.Southward. Colored Troops file claims for bounties and pensions. Unfortunately, readmission of seceded states seemed more important to the nation than securing the rights of former slaves, and the Freedmen's Bureau never realized its full potential.
remained and with them the Ground forces's involvement in Southern affairs. The nation had to exist put back together, and the peace had to be won or the sacrifices of a terrible war would have been in vain. The Army had a master role in reconstruction from the very beginning. As the Union armies avant-garde in the Southward, the civil regime collapsed, except in Sherman's military district, and the Army constitute itself acting in identify of the civil government by extending the part of its provost marshals from policing troops to policing and in event governing the occupied areas. The duties of these provost marshals ranged from establishing garbage regulations to trying to determine the loyalty of Southern citizens. Near the finish of the war, Congress created the Agency of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abased Lands—the Freedmen'southward Bureau—and put it nether the Army. Its chief purpose was to protect and aid the sometime slaves. In late 1865 virtually of the governmental functions of the provost marshals were transferred to this agency headed by Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard, a Ceremonious War corps commander and a professional officer with antislavery convictions of long standing. Equally early as 1862 President Abraham Lincoln had appointed military governors, civilians functioning with military support, in Tennessee, Louisiana, and Due north Carolina. Later on Lincoln'south death, President Andrew Johnson went ahead with his own reconstruction plans. He alleged the Civil War formally at an end in April 1866, liberally pardoned virtually onetime Confederates upon their taking a loyalty oath, and then permitted them to reestablish civil regime. The leniency of this programme, some historians now maintain, led the Army, under Grant, with Stanton in the War Section, to await to Congress rather than to the President, the Commander in Master, for aid in protecting the Marriage forces in the South from harassment. Congress at the same time was in key disagreement with the President'south form. Information technology therefore asserted its supremacy in a series of legislative acts, undoing all that President Johnson had done and placing the South under armed services command. Congress set up forth its basic program in the Control of the Army Act (actually a function of the Army Appropriations Deed of 1867) and the
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		Tenure of Office and the Starting time Reconstruction Acts of March 1867. The first of these provided that all presidential orders to the Army should be issued through the Full general in Chief, whose headquarters would exist in Washington and who could be removed merely with Senate blessing. Similarly, the Tenure of Function Deed denied the President authority to remove Cabinet officers without blessing of the Senate. The outset of these acts sought to make Grant rather than the President supreme over the Army, while the Tenure of Part Act sought to continue Stanton in the War Department and the next twelvemonth provided the principal basis for the impeachment of President Johnson when he suspended the Secretary from office without the Senate's consent. The Starting time Reconstruction Act divided the South into 5 armed services districts. The commanders of these districts were major generals who reported direct to Washington. This was an interesting command relationship, for information technology was customary to divide the country into geographical commands called divisions whose subordinate parts were chosen departments. In March 1867, however, in that location were only two divisions, the Missouri and the Pacific, with the rest of the country divided into the five military districts of the South and into departments that like the v districts reported directly to Washington. Every bit time went by, the Ground forces created additional geographical divisions; and in 1870 a Division of the Southward, comprising iii territorial departments, administered armed services affairs in what had been the five reconstruction districts. There is a difference of opinion every bit to how much the First Reconstruction Act removed command of the reconstruction forces from President Johnson, although Grant advised Maj. Gen. Philip H. Sheridan, i of the commune commanders, that these commanders, rather than the Executive in Washington, were the sole interpreters of the act. In July 1867 Congress incorporated this estimation in the Tertiary Reconstruction Human activity, which declared that "no district commander … shall exist leap in his activity by any opinion of any civil officeholder of the United States." As a consequence of the First and Third Reconstruction Acts, some historians regard the reconstruction forces as nearly a separate army under congressional command, thus distinguishing them from the forces in the territorial divisions and departments that remained clearly under the President. Under the Reconstruction Acts the district commanders had to cope with such matters as horse stealing, moonshining, rioting, civil court proceedings, regulating commercial police force, public pedagogy, fraud, removing public officials, registering voters, belongings elections, and the approving of new state constitutions past registered voters. This occupation duty absorbed somewhat more than one-tertiary of the Regular army'due south strength in 1867. As the Southern states were restored to the Marriage under the reconstruction governments, armed forces dominion came to an cease and civil government causeless full control of state offices. This procedure was largely completed in 1870. With the end of congressional reconstruction, the Army'south straight supervision of civil affairs in the South came to an terminate and the number of troops on occupation duty, which already had fallen off markedly, was reduced further. Now its mission was to preserve the new land governments by continuing its protection of the African Americans and their white allies upon whom the governments rested, policing elections, helping to apprehend criminals, and keeping the peace in conflicts be-
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tween rival country officials. The Ku Klux Klan, a postwar organization that had a considerable membership past 1870–1871, became an object of special concern to the Army, as it did to Congress, because of the Klan's terrorist tactics employed in an attempt to wrest the South from African American–Radical Republican control. Consequently, one of the almost important Army functions in this period was support of federal marshals in an effort to suppress the Klan. This became an Army responsibility despite the restoration of state militia forces nether the reconstruction governments as a means of relieving some of the burden on the regular troops, which were spread thin. Since many of these new militia forces consisted of African Americans, they were not very constructive against white terrorists, who directed some of their acts against the militiamen themselves. These militia forces mainly performed general police duty and watched over elections and voting. Eventually, considering of the opposition of white Southerners to African Americans in compatible, the African American militia forces were disbanded. In April 1877, as a issue of the compromise past which Rutherford B. Hayes became President after the disputed election of 1876, the last of the troops on reconstruction duty in the South were transferred to other duty and the federal armed services occupation of the South came to an terminate. The Regular army's office in the Southward in the years 1865–1877 was without precedent in the U.s.a.. Domestic Disturbances       Bated from the Indian Wars and Sheridan'due south prove of strength on the Mexican border, the Army engaged in no conventional military machine operations of any result until the Spanish-American War, that is, for a period of over thirty years. There were, nevertheless, a number of domestic disturbances and incidents in which armed forces were used, non only in the South during the reconstruction menstruation but elsewhere as well. Indeed, by 1878, when Congress forbade the apply of federal troops without dominance by either "the Constitution or … Congress," there had been scores and perhaps hundreds of instances of their use by federal marshals in breaking strikes, enforcing local laws, collecting revenues, and arresting offenders. In the summertime of 1877 the Hayes administration used troops in the moving ridge of railway strikes that marked the country's first great national labor dispute. These strikes spread to a dozen or more states and led to a number of requests for federal assistance. Thereupon, the Hayes administration pursued a policy of moving troops only to protect federal property or upon the request of a governor or federal judge. The Army stripped every post in Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock'south Military Segmentation of the Atlantic of its available men and besides obtained troops from other posts. President Hayes also used some marines. During the strikes the President had his ain source of information in Signal Corps observer-sergeants who reported to Washington at intervals concerning conditions every bit they saw them at their local weather stations. Under the circumstances of their use, federal troops came into but limited contact with mobs during the 1877 strikes. They however contributed profoundly to the restoration of order, as Hancock reported, "by their presence alone." The positive results were not due to the size of the		Since many of these new militia forces consisted of African Ameri- cans, they were not very effective confronting white terrorists, who di- rected some of their acts confronting the militiamen themselves.
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The volunteer militia organiza- tions that had existed since the colonial period became in effect the only real militia in being in those years.		forces, for with only near 24,000 troops in the unabridged Army in 1877 just a minor detachment could be used at whatsoever 1 place. But these regular troops were well disciplined; taking their cue from the President himself, they acted with considerable restraint in putting down the strikes, neither losing a single soldier nor causing the death of many civilians. Although the Regular army became involved in other strike duty in the succeeding years of the century, the best-known instance was in the Pullman, or railway, strike of 1894 that, though centered in Chicago, besides affected other parts of the country. President Grover Cleveland's order to hastily send troops to Chicago against the wishes of Governor John P. Altgeld provided that they should execute the orders and processes of federal courts, forbid obstructions to the move of the mails, and generally enforce U.S. laws. In fact, they put downwards the strike. Other governors besides protested the utilise of federal troops in their states. Maj. Gen. Nelson A. Miles, who allowable the 2,000 federal troops in Chicago (and who had brash against using them in the strike), did non utilise his men effectively, perhaps at first considering he broke them up into small detachments in support of policemen and marshals at scattered points. New orders, nonetheless, required him to concentrate his forces and authorized him to burn upon rioters subsequently a proper warning. A modest company of regular troops under his control did burn down upon a mob in Hammond, Indiana, on July eight, 1894, when they were about to be overwhelmed past many times their ain number. At to the lowest degree one rioter was killed and a dozen or more wounded in this action. The violence was really much less in 1894 than in 1877; only with only about 28,000 officers and enlisted men in the Army, Schofield, the Commanding Full general, reported that while his troops performed their duty "promptly and finer," the situation taxed them "nearly to the limit." He might accept added that at least in California both sailors and marines were used. The U.S. Supreme Courtroom unanimously sustained President Cleveland's actions in Chicago during the 1894 strike, with the result that a legal precedent was gear up for using federal troops within a state without its consent. The National Guard Movement       Despite the use of regular troops in notable instances, the organized militia nether state control saw more strike duty than did the regulars in the years after the Civil War. The volunteer militia organizations that had existed since the colonial catamenia became in issue the merely existent militia in existence in those years. The events of the seventies in detail led many to fearfulness some other insurrection, and as a outcome Congress introduced legislation to amend and to provide better artillery for the organized militia. In 1879, in support of this attempt, the National Guard Association came into beingness in St. Louis; between 1881 and 1892 every land revised its military lawmaking to provide for an organized militia. Almost states, post-obit the lead of New York, called their militia the National Guard. As such, information technology was past 1898 the principal reserve standing behind the Regular Army but remaining a state military force. At that place was a certain martial enthusiasm in the 1870s and 1880s, despite the general antimilitarism of the period, which swelled the ranks of the Guard. Also, the Baby-sit attracted some persons considering information technology was a
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fraternal group that appealed to the manly virtues of concrete fitness, duty, and subject area; it attracted many because it was a kind of social club whose members enjoyed a local prestige. Although organized past states, the Guard had roots in the new nationalism of the period, as may be seen in its very name. Despite this new interest in the Guard, and although the State of war Department supported the Guard's proposal for a new militia act, apathy, states' rights, and antimilitarism prevented Congress from enacting the desired legislation. Through the efforts of the National Guard Clan, the Guard nevertheless succeeded in securing an act in 1887 that doubled the $200,000 annual federal grant for firearms that the militia had enjoyed since 1808. Isolation and Professional Development       The industrial unrest of the 1870s and later was a manifestation of the growing industrialization and urbanization of the nation in the concluding decades of the nineteenth century; only while labor organizations grew as never before, they were of relatively little influence until much later. Meanwhile, possibly partly as a reaction to the terrible experiences of the Civil War, the ideals and philosophy of what modern historian Samuel P. Huntington calls "business organisation pacifism" became dominant. Among other things, business pacifism rejected things armed services every bit outmoded in an industrial world designed to produce and sell appurtenances; and information technology made an impression upon both intellectuals and the popular mind. It manifested itself as either indifference or outright hostility to the Regular Army, affected military appropriations, and philosophically separated the Army from the people. In the late 1860s and the 1870s, as Army appropriations barbarous off (and in 1877 were not even fabricated until November), the Army became isolated from the society at big. Information technology became isolated not but socially, but physically as well, for much of the Ground forces was on alone duty in the West. Those years, according to Army historian William A. Ganoe, were "The Army'south Dark Ages." They caused the Regular army and the Navy to expect in and to develop a truly war machine viewpoint that differed fundamentally from business pacifism and civilian liberal idea in full general. Paradoxically, in Huntington'due south words, the post–Ceremonious War years were really "the most fertile, creative, and formative in the history of the American military." It took such a period of peace to develop the professionalism that would find employment in the world wars of the next century. In the Army, this professionalism took shape largely nether the impetus of ii men, General William T. Sherman and Col. Emory Upton, with the help of other reformers of lesser rank. Their contemporary, Rear Adm. Stephen B. Luce, was similarly the architect of a new professionalism in the U.Southward. Navy. Sherman's fame of course rests upon his tape in the Civil War, merely he was also the Commanding General of the Army for nearly xv years from 1869, when he succeeded Grant, to 1883, when Sheridan succeeded him—a record second simply to that of Winfield Scott. Unlike Grant and two of the other five Commanding Generals before him, Sherman remained out of politics and thus began the tradition of political neutrality, which would be adhered to long after his fourth dimension, although not religiously. In this and other ways he oriented the thought of the		Business pacifism . . . manifested itself as either indifference or outright hostility to the Regular Regular army, affected military appropri- ations, and philosophically sepa- rated the Army from the people.
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Due eastMORY UPTON (1839–1881)       Emory Upton, Westward Betoken Class of 1861, emerged from the Civil State of war with a reputation for tactical innovation that he ce- mented with the 1867 publication of A New Organization of Infantry Tactics. Adopted past the Army, Upton'south organization recognized the im- pact of breechloading rifles and other new technologies. He pro- moted reforms based on the Prussian military machine organisation and ideas such as the compulsory retirement of officers, advanced military schools, and test for promotion. Secretary of War Elihu Root would arrange for the publication of The Military machine Policy of the The states, Upton's unfinished manifesto, as the basis for his ain reform agenda. Upton sowed the seeds for a federal reserve force and an expansible ground forces built upon a professional core. Some afterward interpreters would skew his work to fit their own purposes. Some of these interpretations would exacerbate the natural tensions between that professional cadre and the volunteer, denizen-soldiers who must under wartime circumstances provide the majority of the manpower for the Regular army. Emory Upton
		professional soldier. As Commanding General he became the architect for a arrangement of postgraduate schools beyond the Armed forces Academy through which an officer could acquire the skills of his own branch of the service and finally the principles of higher command. Emory Upton, a protégé of Sherman'southward, was the well-nigh influential of the younger officers who worked to reform the Army. He graduated from West Point in 1861 and was brevetted a major full general during the Civil War. Afterwards the war he prepared a new system of infantry tactics; served equally commandant of cadets at the Armed forces Academy, 1870–1875; went on a mission to study the armies of Asia and Europe, which left him especially impressed by the German military machine organization; and then became superintendent of theoretical instruction in the Artillery School at Fort Monroe. His best-known writings, The Armies of Asia and Europe (1878) and The Armed forces Policy of the United States (1904), argued for numerous reforms. The second of these ii books was unfinished at the time of his death by suicide in 1881 but was put in order by an associate and, circulating in the Army, became influential long before its publication. Information technology presented a case for a stiff regular war machine force based upon U.Southward. experience and afterwards provided the Regular army with intellectual ammunition for shooting downwards the arguments of militia advocates for whom John A. Logan provided a text in his posthumously published Volunteer Soldier of America (1887). In Upton's view, a wartime ground forces should consist entirely of regular formations, which meant that all volunteers should serve nether regular officers. Upton borrowed this plan for an expansible Regular Army from John C. Calhoun. Without giving due weight to the strength of tradition, he wanted the United
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States to abandon its traditional dual war machine system and supplant information technology with a thoroughgoing professional person regular army on the High german model. The Military University at W Point was at the base of the pyramidal structure of the Regular army educational system. Unfortunately, much of the vitality went out of the instruction at West Point after 1871 with the deviation of Dennis Hart Mahan, the intellectual godfather of the postwar reformers. Although the War Department removed West Indicate from control of the Corps of Engineers in 1866, the Academy continued to provide heavily mathematical grooming and to turn out military technicians but at the aforementioned time lost its former eminence equally an engineering school. As time went past, the technical content of the curriculum in both the Military University and the Naval University was reduced; only by 1900 the effort to combine bones war machine and liberal arts subjects set both institutions off from other collegiate institutions and from the mainstream of education in the The states. The period of reduced emphasis on technical instruction at the War machine Academy saw the rise of the special postgraduate technical schools that Sherman favored. When the Engineers lost their responsibility for West Bespeak in 1866, a group of engineer officers founded the Essayons Club, which became the Engineer Schoolhouse of Awarding in 1885. In 1868 Grant revived Calhoun'due south Artillery School at Fort Monroe, Virginia, which had been airtight since 1860. Also in 1868 a bespeak school of pedagogy opened at Fort Greble, D.C., and in 1869 moved to Fort Whipple (later Fort Myer), Virginia, where it continued until 1885. In 1881 Sherman founded the School of Application for Infantry and Cavalry at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. Although at its showtime this school was trivial different from any of the other branch schools, it eventually fulfilled Sherman's hopes and evolved, with much of the credit due to Col. Arthur L. Wagner, into the General Service and Staff College. The Medical Section under Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg founded the Ground forces Medical School in 1893. Included in the deed of 1866 that fixed the system of the postwar Regular army was a provision authorizing the President to detail as many as twenty officers to teach armed services science in schools of higher learning. This supplemented the function of the Morrill Act of 1862 that had provided for military pedagogy in state-grant colleges. By 1893 the number of instructors had increased to one hundred. In this programme can be seen the beginnings of the Reserve Officer Training Corps, although it would not be organized as such for many years. Some other significant aspect of the developing military professionalism of the years following the Civil War was the founding of professional associations and journals. Notable among them were the U.S. Naval Constitute, founded in 1873, whose Proceedings would become well known; the Military Service Establishment of the United States, whose Journal would become a casualty of World War I; the The states Cavalry Association, which published the Cavalry Journal; and the Association of Military Surgeons, which published The Military Surgeon. In 1892 the Artillery School at Fort Monroe founded The Journal of the United States Artillery; and in 1893 a grouping of officers at Fort Leavenworth founded the Infantry Society, which became the U.S. Infantry Association the following twelvemonth and later published the Infantry Journal. Earlier, in 1879, United Service began publication as a journal of naval
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FORT LEAVENWORTH AND THE WEST       The site of Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, on a bluff on the due west depository financial institution of the Missouri River, is testimony to the contained judgment that regular army officers often had to exercise in 1827, the year of the fort'southward founding. Nether orders to observe a suitable site on the east bank of the river, Col. Henry Leavenworth was unsatisfied with the terrain. He connected upstream until he came to a likely place on the west bank. Twenty years afterward national expansion put Fort Leavenworth in the center of the United States, and by 1882 it had become the logical spot for a school to further the didactics of cavalry and infantry lieutenants. The School of Applica- tion, as it was called, provided junior officers from the Ground forces'due south scattered, frequently tiny garrisons with an educa- tion fit for the age of steam and electricity, of breechloading weapons and the new smokeless pulverisation. Its successor, the Command and General Staff College, is still there. Fort Leavenworth is the oldest continually occupied Army post west of the Mississippi River.
		and military diplomacy. Still earlier, in 1863, the Regular army and Navy Journal, as information technology came to be chosen, began a long run. Information technology was not a professional journal like the others, just along with its social and other items about service personnel information technology carried articles, correspondence, and news of interest to military people that helped bind its readers together in a common professional fraternity. Earlier the Civil War the Regular army had no professional person personnel system in the modern sense. Traditionally, most officers came into the service from the Military machine Academy at the lowest rank and received promotions on the ground of seniority. The war, however, at least fabricated the need for a retirement system evident; and in 1861 Congress provided for compulsory retirement for incapacity. In 1862 and 1870 it provided that after 30 years' service an officer might retire either voluntarily or compulsorily at the President's discretion. Finally, in 1882 legislation made retirement compulsory at historic period 60-four, which prompted the retirements of Sherman, Maj. Gen. Montgomery C. Meigs, and Surgeon General Joseph K. Barnes. Beginning in 1890, promotions for all officers below the rank of major were by examination, thus insuring a minimum level of professional person competence. In the mid-nineties, the Army instituted systematic grapheme and efficiency reports for all officers. Line and Staff       There was no end, during the years betwixt the Ceremonious War and the turn of the century, to the former controversy betwixt the line of the Army and the staff departments. The controversy had its roots in a legally divided responsibility and received nourishment from a formulation of war as a science and equally the natural purpose of the armed forces. Although Congress made Grant a full general in 1866, and although Sherman and Sheridan both held that rank later on him, neither these officers (except Grant during postwar reconstruction) nor their successors were able to avert the basic organizational frustrations of the office of Commanding General. The issues were inevitable because, as Army regulations put it as belatedly every bit 1895, the military institution in the territorial commands was under the Commanding Full general for matters of discipline
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and military machine control, while the Army'south financial affairs were conducted by the Secretary of War through the staff departments. At the aforementioned time, no statutory definition of the functions of the Commanding Full general existed except to a express extent late in the century in the matter of inquiry and development. In practice this state of affairs as well diluted the Commanding General's command of the territorial departments, since plain the distribution and diversion of logistical support for these departments past the staff heads and the Secretary of War would bear on troop operations. Basic to the controversy was an assertion of the primacy of the line over the staff departments, for which there was a theoretical foundation in the developing conception of war as a science and the do of that science equally the sole purpose of military forces. Since the Army existed but to fight, it followed that its organization, training, and every activity should be directed to the single stop of efficiency in gainsay. Therefore, the staff departments, representing a technical-expertise arroyo to state of war, existed simply to serve the purposes of the line, which represented professionalism. From that proposition information technology followed that the line, in the person of the Commanding General, should control the staff. Information technology also followed that the Ground forces should not become involved, as it did, in such activities as the advancement of scientific discipline or exploration. "The regular Ground forces at present is a very curious compound," Sherman observed in 1874 in hearings on a bill to reduce the Regular army. Equally the Commanding Full general, he had "no dominance, command or influence over anything merely the cavalry, arms, and infantry, and such staff officers equally are assigned by their respective chiefs, approved by the Secretary of War, and attached to these various bodies for actual service." To him the three services that he named were "the Regular army of the Us," while the rest just went "to make up the military peace institution." If the Army had to be pruned, he advised pruning the branches of this peace establishment, not the active regiments. To a question about who commanded the engineer battalion, he replied "God only knows, for I do non." In his opinion the Ordnance Section was "the softest place in the Army." Sons and nephews wanted to go into it, he alleged, "particularly young men with influential congressional friends." As for the 450 men of the "signal detachment," Sherman regarded them as "no more soldiers than the men at the Smithsonian Institution. They are making scientific observations of the weather, of great involvement to navigators and the country at large. But what does a soldier care about the conditions? Whether good or bad, he must take it as information technology comes." Sherman's view was that of the Regular army command and of the line, merely it did not prevail. In 1894 the state of affairs in which heads of the staff departments spent their entire careers with their specialty and became technical rather than military experts was modified by the requirement that thereafter appointments to the staff departments should be from the line of the Ground forces. However, this left the basic command problem still unresolved. Technical Development       The tape of the Ground forces's technical development in the years down to the stop of the century was not one of marked and continuous prog-
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Model 1898 Krag-Jörgensen Rifle, .30–.forty Caliber		ress in every field, for information technology was hampered past military conservatism, bereft funds, and the nation's slowness in adapting inventive genius to the art of war. However there was considerable progress. In transportation, with the extension of the trans-Mississippi railroads, it became possible to move whole wagon trains by lashing the wagons to flatcars and transporting the mules in airtight cars. In ordnance there was progress, however tiresome; and there were notable beginnings, some of them of vast potential, in indicate communications. The Regular army was nearly as slow in adopting new weapons as information technology was in solving the trouble of control that had plagued information technology for so long. Although Henry and Spencer breechloading repeating rifles with rim-fire cartridges were used during the Civil War, the typical Ceremonious War infantry shoulder arm was a muzzleloading rifled musket. In the years immediately following the state of war, the Ordnance Department, faced with a shortage of funds, converted thousands of the Ceremonious War muzzleloaders into breechloaders. Desiring a better weapon, however, the Ground forces convened a board in 1872 to examine and examination existing weapons. After the lath had examined over a hundred weapons, the Regular army adopted the single-shot Model 1873 Springfield breechloader. This fired a middle-fire, .45-caliber cartridge, the caliber that the Ordnance Department selected as most desirable for all rifles, carbines, and pistols. The 1889 model of this gun, which embodied its final modifications, was the last of the Army'due south single-shot, large-caliber, black-pulverization rifles and the primary shoulder arm of the National Guard as late equally 1898. The Springfield remained in service fifty-fifty later on the adoption of newer weapons and despite the tendency toward smokeless powder and repeating arms abroad. U.S. manufacturers were tedious to develop the new powder, which had several articulate advantages. It burned progressively, gradually increasing the velocity of the bullet as it traveled through the barrel. In addition, its increasing pressures permitted a refinement in the rifling that gave a greater spin to the bullet and produced a college velocity and a flatter trajectory. When smokeless powder became bachelor in the United States, a board in 1890 recommended the adoption of the Danish .30-quotient, commodities-activity Krag-Jörgensen rifle, which fired smokeless cartridges and had a box magazine property five cartridges. The Army adopted the Krag, every bit it came to be known, in 1892; but Congress delayed product at the Springfield Armory for two years, until tests of fourteen American models failed to discover a superior weapon. By 1897 the Krag had been issued throughout the Regular Regular army. When its manufacture was discontinued in 1904, the original 1892 model had been modified twice, in 1896 and 1898. Of the several types of the early machine gun available during the Civil State of war, the most successful was the Gatling gun, which the Army did non prefer until 1866 when the state of war was over. Even the advocates of this gun failed to recognize its usefulness as an infantry weapon just instead looked upon information technology as either auxiliary to arms or as a useful weapon for defending bridges or other stock-still sites. In arms as in shoulder arms American technical genius lagged behind that in Europe, where breechloading artillery using smokeless powder became common in the tardily nineteenth century. Other European improvements were explosive shells and recoil-absorbing devices,
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which permitted refiring without re-aiming afterward every shot and opened the way to sophisticated sighting mechanisms and highly authentic indirect fire. Besides, in the year before the Spanish-American War the French invented their famous 75-mm. gun. The U.S. Regular army however adopted some good rifled breechloaders, with the 3.2-inch rifle equally the standard light field piece. These new guns replaced the former smoothbores, and steel replaced atomic number 26 in their construction; but they still used black powder. The Ground forces also had begun to experiment with steel carriages, pneumatic or hydraulic brakes, and mechanisms for elevating, traversing, and sighting artillery pieces. The progress in artillery and armor plate was at to the lowest degree partly the result of the piece of work of several boards. The first of these was the joint Army-Navy Gun Foundry Lath provided by the Naval Appropriations Act of 1883. Its purpose was to consider the trouble of how American industry could produce both armor plate and armor-piercing guns, upon which a mod navy depended, that would be comparable to the products of European industry. After touring European ammunition factories, the board recommended that the government award generous contracts to U.S. companies to stimulate their development of steels and forgings and that the regime itself assemble the new materials into weapons at both the Naval Gun Factory and Army arsenals. The new interest in the Navy in those years resulted in a need to examine littoral fortifications, which would have to exist improved if new ships were not to be tied down to defense of the main harbors. As a upshot the Endicott Lath was ready in 1885 to plan for restoration of the coastal fortifications. Neither the world state of affairs nor the existing naval engineering science justified the estimated toll of implementing the board's recommendations, but in 1888 Congress voted an initial appropriation and established a permanent body, the Board of Ordnance and Fortification, to supervise programs concerned with preparing littoral fortifications. This board was meaning every bit the kickoff State of war Section–wide agency for supporting research and evolution and equally an endeavor to identify the of import staff departments partly nether the control of the Commanding General. Moreover, its failure served to betoken out the defects in the War Section'due south organization. The board remained in being until 1920, simply in 1890 and 1891 engineer expenditures and in 1892 ordnance expenditures were removed from the board'south supervision. The actual work on the fortifications that followed was never completed, simply during the nineties the Army abandoned the old forts effectually the principal harbors in favor of earthworks, armor-plated concrete pits, and bang-up ten- and 12-inch disappearing rifles. During the years after the Ceremonious War there were several significant developments in signal communications nether the Signal Corps, known as the Signal Service for many years. In 1867 the War Department restored electric field telegraphy to the Signal Corps, which had lost responsibleness for it about 3 years earlier; and the corps quickly developed a new flying or field telegraph train, using batteries, sounders, and insulated wire. Then after constructing a telegraph line along the east coast in 1873 as an aid to the Life-Saving Service, the Signal Corps built long telegraph lines in both the Southwest and Northwest to provide advice betwixt isolated military posts. These also
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The U.S. Army performed a vari- ety of highly useful civil functions in the interwar years, despite the new professionalism that decried such activities equally reverse to the natural purpose of an ground forces.		provided facilities for transmitting weather reports. By 1881 these lines extended for slightly more than than v,000 miles. In the late seventies, within a year or ii of Alexander Graham Bell's patenting of the telephone, the Regular army was using it experimentally at Fort Whipple and between that post and Signal Corps offices in Washington. By 1889 a field-phone kit, combining the Bell phone, a Morse cardinal, and a battery, had been developed only was believed too expensive for manufacture and outcome at that time. About iii years after, of ninety-9 garrisoned posts, l-nine had telephone equipment, some belonging to the Signal Corps and some rented from the Bong Phone Company. About the same fourth dimension the Army began using the phone, it besides became interested in the heliograph (mirrors reflecting sunlight to transmit Morse code) and institute it to exist particularly useful in the Southwest. In that location were too experiments as early as 1878 with homing pigeons. Perhaps most significant of all the Indicate Corps experimentation and developments of the period was the reintroduction of balloons into the Ground forces in the early on nineties for the commencement time since the Civil War. In 1893 the Signal Corps exhibited a military airship at the Globe's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, and in 1896 information technology organized a model balloon railroad train at Fort Logan, Colorado. Here were the beginnings that would lead to the development of Ground forces aviation. The backwardness of the The states in military machine technology in the 1890s, despite some important developments, would be misleading unless i looked beyond the specific military facts to examine the nation's industrial base. The United States was already an industrial giant. In 1890, only twenty-nine years after the outset of the Civil State of war, the United States pulled ahead of Great United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland in the product of both pig atomic number 26 and steel and thus became the world'southward leading producer. Moreover, in the decade of the nineties, the United States also surpassed Great Britain in coal production. In total articles, the nation's share jumped from less than 20 percent of the earth volume in 1880 to more 35 percentage in 1913. With such an industrial base and potential, the Ground forces of the nineties had no existent need for concern. Ceremonious Accomplishment       The U.S. Ground forces performed a variety of highly useful ceremonious functions in the interwar years, despite the new professionalism that decried such activities equally reverse to the natural purpose of an army. Upon the United States' purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867 the Army assumed responsibleness for Alaskan diplomacy except in matters concerning customs, commerce, and navigation, which became a responsibility of the Treasury Department. This state of affairs connected until June 1877, when the Army withdrew from Alaska (partly because of the cost of maintaining a garrison in so remote a place) and left the Treasury Department in charge. For the adjacent twenty years the Regular army's master role in Alaska was in support of various explorations conducted by Army personnel, which had begun at least as early equally 1869 when Capt. Charles W. Raymond of the Army Engineers explored the Yukon. Thereafter there were other explorations in the Yukon, the region of the Copper and Tanana Rivers, and to Point Barrow by variously 1st Lt. Frederick Schwatka of the
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Members of the Greely Expedition. Lieutenant Greely is in the front row, fourth from the left. 3d Cavalry, second Lt. William R. Abercrombie of the 2d Infantry, second Lt. Henry T. Allen of the 2d Cavalry, and 1st Lt. Patrick Henry Ray of the Betoken Corps. Ray's expedition to Betoken Barrow, 1881–1883, was successful in conveying out diverse meteorological and other observations. Information technology returned safely, but the companion Lady Franklin Bay expedition to Ellesmere Island, 1881–1884, nether 1st Lt. Adolphus W. Greely of the Bespeak Corps, was not nearly so fortunate. Although the Greely expedition reached a betoken farther north than any prior trek and carried out its scientific observations, all simply seven members of the party died before rescue (and one person died afterward) through failure of prearranged plans for receiving supplies. The Greely expedition grew out of the plans of Signal Corps 1st Lt. Henry Due west. Howgate for an Chill colony at Lady Franklin Bay and out of the proposals of the International Polar Conference in Hamburg in 1879 for a chain of meteorological stations near the North Pole. The Ray trek stemmed from the Hamburg Conference. After the Ceremonious War, the rivers and harbors piece of work of the Corps of Engineers increased considerably, contributing substantially to development of the nation'due south water resource. Other notable contributions of the Engineers included their construction of public buildings, including supervision of the final work on the Washington Monument and on the State, War, and Navy Edifice, together with Brig. Gen. Thomas L. Casey'southward planning and supervision from 1888 to 1895 of the structure of what is now the main edifice of the Library of Congress. Beginning in 1878, the Engineers provided an officer to serve by presidential engagement every bit one of the three governing commissioners of the Commune of Columbia. Of the iv great surveys undertaken in the United states of america prior to establishment of the Geological Survey in the Interior Section
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This loss of the weather service marked a general pass up in the role of the military services in the cause of science.		in 1879, the Corps of Engineers had responsibleness for ii: the King Survey, 1867–1872, which made a geological exploration of the 40th Parallel, and the Wheeler Survey, 1871–1879, the geographical survey westward of the 100th Acme. The latter was more of a military survey in the tradition of the erstwhile Corps of Topographical Engineers than was the old, essentially a civilian undertaking. Both of these surveys nevertheless collected specimens of great use to scientists in the fields of botany, zoology, paleontology, and related disciplines. Although the Navy was largely responsible for interoceanic canal surveys in the postal service–Civil War years, the showtime U.Southward. Isthmian Canal Committee, appointed past President Grant in 1872, had Brig. Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys, Primary of Engineers, as ane of its three members. In 1874 Maj. Walter McFarland, Corps of Engineers, went out with naval assistance to examine the Nicaragua and Atrato-Napipi canal routes; and in 1897 Col. Peter C. Hains of the Engineers was one of the members President William McKinley appointed to the Nicaragua Canal Commission. In the years from 1870 to 1891 the War Department organized and operated under the Signal Corps the nation'south beginning modern atmospheric condition service using both leased telegraph lines and, subsequently they were congenital, the Army'south own war machine lines for reporting simultaneous observations to Washington. Under Brig Gen. Albert J. Myer, the Main Signal Officeholder, the service gained international renown; but partly considering of the hostility of the War Department and the Army to the essentially civil character of the weather service and to its cost, Congress in 1890 directed transfer of the service to the Department of Agriculture, where it became the Weather Agency in 1891. This loss of the conditions service marked a general decline in the function of the military machine services in the crusade of science. Although the Signal Corps retained responsibility for war machine meteorology, the Ground forces had little need of it until Globe War I. Of all the Army'due south ceremonious contributions, those of its Medical Department, with immeasurable implications for the entire society, may well take been the virtually important. Indeed, medical inquiry in the Army, in which a few outstanding men were predominant, did not reverberate the reject in research that affected the other military branches of the period. One of the most notable of the Army'southward medical contributions was the Army Medical Library, or the Surgeon General'southward Library, which, though founded in 1836, did not come up into its own until subsequently 1868, when Assistant Surgeon John Due south. Billings began to make information technology into ane of the world's great medical libraries. Similarly, in the same period, Billings adult the Army Medical Museum, which had been founded during the Ceremonious War, into what would become in fact a national institute of pathology. George Sternberg, who became the Surgeon General in 1893, was the leading pioneer in bacteriology in the United states and a worthy contemporary of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. Sternberg's official duties provided some opportunity for his studies, although he performed almost of his research independently, some of information technology in the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore under the auspices of the American Public Health Association. He was appreciated past all except the more conservative of his colleagues who resisted the germ theory to almost the same degree as physicians in private practice.
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The more than three decades from the end of the Civil State of war to the Castilian-American War took the Ground forces through a catamenia of isolation and penury in which it engaged in no large war but in which it had opportunity for introspection. It took advantage of this opportunity and in professional means that would hateful much to its future success moved from darkness and near despair into the lite of a new military twenty-four hour period. Yet throughout this period, the Army was engaged in a more than active mission that for many allowed little time for retrospection or leisure, a mission that shaped Army traditions and myths for years to come up. The Army had a war to fight earlier it would see accomplished at to the lowest degree some of the reforms toward which the new military machine professionalism looked—a long war in the American West against the Indians, or Native Americans. D Q 1. What was the role of the U.S. Army in the occupation of the Southern states after the Civil State of war? Why was this such an unpopular mission? ii. What part should the U.S. Regular army have in domestic disturbances such equally riots, large-scale strikes, etc.? What more recent uses of the Regular army in domestic interventions can you think of? 3. What is the difference between the militia and the National Guard? iv. What does the phrase "war machine professionalism" mean to you? Is the purpose of military education the learning of technical skills, the inculcation of a professional ethos or culture, or something else completely? five. The argument of "line versus staff" is no longer as contentious every bit it in one case was. However, are there however differences between officers who are technical experts and those who are more generalists? If so, why is this a problem? half-dozen. To what extent should the Army be involved in essentially nonmilitary missions such as exploration, weather forecasting, or other "civilian" occupations? R R Abrahamson, James L. America Arms for a New Century: The Making of a Peachy Military Ability. New York: Complimentary Press, 1981. Ambrose, Stephen. Upton and the Army. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Printing, 1993. Coakley, Robert W. The Role of Federal Military Forces in Domestic Disorders, 1789–1878. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Eye of Military History, 1988. Cooper, Jerry M. The Regular army and Civil Disorder: Federal Armed services Intervention in Labor Disputes, 1877–1900. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980. ———. The Rising of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia, 1865–1920. Lincoln: Academy of Nebraska Press, 1997.
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		Coffman, Edward M. The Old Regular army: A Portrait of the American Army in Peacetime, 1784–1898. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. Huntington, Samuel P. The Soldier and the Country: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1957. Leckie, William H. The Buffalo Soldiers: A Narrative of the Negro Cavalry in the West, rev. ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma Printing, 2003. Risch, Erna. Quartermaster Support of the Army: A History of the Corps, 1775–1939. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Centre of Military History, 1989. Other Readings Armstrong, David A. Bullets and Bureaucrats: The Machine Gun and the United States Army, 1861–1916. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982. Bruce, Robert V. 1877: Year of Violence. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1959. Caswell, John E. Chill Frontiers: United States Explorations in the Far Northward. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1956. Dawson, Joseph G. III. Ground forces Generals and Reconstruction: Louisiana, 1862–1877. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Academy Printing, 1982. Hill, Jim D. The Minute Man in Peace and War: A History of the National Baby-sit. Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole Co., 1964. Hume, Edgar E. Victories of Army Medicine: Scientific Accomplishments of the Medical Department of the U.s.a. Army. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1943. Jamieson, Perry D. Crossing the Mortiferous Ground: United States Ground forces Tactics, 1865–1899. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Printing, 1994. Nenninger, Timothy K. The Leavenworth Schools and the Quondam Regular army: Teaching, Professionalism and the Officer Corps of the United States Army, 1881–1918. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978. Thomas, Benjamin P., and Harold Yard. Hyman. Stanton: The Life and Times of Lincoln'southward Secretary of War. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980.
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Source: https://history.army.mil/books/amh-v1/ch13.htm

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